By: Don Penven, Tech Support
Regular-Oxide, Metallic, Magnetic, Combination and Fluorescent. This article covers the basic theory of each type. Keep in mind that if you are uncertain which powder to use on a particular surface—experiment by placing your print in an area not likely to have been touched by the perpetrator.
Regular-Oxide Powders
These powders are considered the basic choice by crime scene investigators for use on many of the surfaces encountered at crime scenes. But many practitioners are not aware of some of the limitations. Examples of regular-oxides are: black, white, gray and red. These finely milled powders are highly sensitive toward the moisture or oily content of latent fingerprints. But their use should be limited to just non-porous surfaces such as most painted metals, plastics, waxed surfaces, glass, rubber, leather and wood (painted and unpainted). They should not be used on highly polished surfaces such as chrome or silver plating or other polished metals. Regular-oxide powders are applied with a brush. A powder color is selected based on how much contrast from the background it affords. Use black powder on light-colored surfaces and white powder on dark colored surfaces. Gray and red powders are often used on either light or dark surfaces.
Metallic Powders
As the name suggests, these powders are formulated from metallic substances such as aluminum, copper and zinc. They are specifically formulated for use on highly polished surfaces like chrome or silver plating. Using a regular-oxide powder on this type of surface generally results in the moisture residue from latent prints being damaged or destroyed—these ridge structures are simply wiped away. Metallic powders are applied with a brush.
Magnetic Powders
Magnetic powders are formulated from iron or iron oxide. The powders themselves are not magnetic, but they are easily magnetized by a magnetic wand. Magnetic powders may be used on virtually any surface EXCEPT a surface containing iron or steel. The principle of delivery is this: a magnetic wand is passed over the powder, which is then attracted to the wand to form a “brush” made of the powder. The CSI then passes this powder brush over the surface so that the tip of the wand does not touch the surface, but the powder does. When carefully applied, magnetic powders leave very little surface residue so cleanup is simplified. Magnetic powders are available in black, gray and white for contrast with the surface.
Combination Powders
These powders combine the properties and chemistry of both regular-oxide powders and metallic powders. The benefits here are:
Combination powders are applied with a brush.
Fluorescent Powders
Note: fluorescent powders use a formulation similar to regular-oxide powders and are thus best suited to work on those surfaces mentioned above.
Fluorescent powders appeared in the crime scene kits of CSIs who wanted a powder that was usable on multi-colored, confused backgrounds like soda cans, snack wrappers and bags, wallpaper, ceramic surfaces, etc. These powders contain a chemical that produces fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light or certain frequencies from alternate light sources (blue, yellow, green and red). When developed latent prints are viewed under subdued ambient light the fluorescence is bright enough that when the prints are photographed, the background is mostly dropped out. Fluorescent powders are applied with a brush.
For more information on latent print development using powders, chemicals and fuming techniques, download the Latent Print Development section of our catalog and read over pages 9-12. Latent Print Development
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Cyanoacrylate adhesive, better known as superglue, was first discovered by Harry Wesley Coover Jr., who was experimenting with acrylates for use in clear plastic gun-sights during World War II. He gave up because they stuck to everything they touched.
In 1951, Eastman Kodak researcher, Fred Joyner, who was working with Dr. Coover at Eastman Kodak’s laboratory in Tennessee, was testing hundreds of compounds looking for a temperature-resistant coating for jet cockpits. When Mr. Joyner spread the 910th compound on the list between two lenses on a refractometer to take a reading on the velocity of light through it, he discovered he could not separate the lenses. His initial reaction was panic at the loss of the expensive lab equipment. He ruined the machine.
In 1958, Dr. Coover saw an enormous opportunity, which led to the first incarnation of Super Glue, called Eastman 910, hit the market.
Super Glue gained fame for its incredible tenacity, but nearly 20 years passed before this product found its way into the field of forensic science. Scientists in Tokyo’s National Crime Laboratory discovered that white fingerprints kept appearing on bottles of Cyanoacrylate they kept in their lab. They subsequently discovered that white fingerprints could be developed on most non-porous surfaces, simply by exposing the invisible undeveloped latent prints to superglue fumes.
Today, cyanoacrylate fuming enjoys widespread use in the crime lab and crime scenes all over the world.
So what is going on here? Simply this: when CA fumes come into contact with moisture (about 90% of what a latent print is composed of) it polymerizes. Polymerization is a process during which relatively small molecules (monomers) combine chemically to produce a very large, chain-like molecule—known as a polymer. Many thousands of monomer units are incorporated in a single molecule of a polymer.
In the case of latent print development, the CA fumes polymerize with the moisture of the latent print residue to form a rock-hard polymer that defies removal.
In today’s world of criminalistics, the advantages of using CA fuming are obvious: Fragile latent print ridges become virtually impervious to physical damage or destruction. Of course, the resulting prints are white but this isn’t a problem. They can be colored using regular latent print powders without fear of brushing them print away. Certain liquid dyes may be applied too, allowing for excellent photographic contrast.
Over the years, and in a sense of urgency, various methods have been employed to accelerate CA development. Merely exposing a surface to the fumes may take 8 hours or more for the results to be seen. A variety of concoctions were tried as accelerators. Treating cotton pads with sodium hydroxide was popular until the safety issues compelled many users to find other means of speeding up development.
Today, the most popular, and the safest methods used include applying heat to the CA liquid or simply squirt some CA onto a 100% untreated cotton pad. Heat is a little bit faster than the pad concept.
While CA fumes are non-toxic, they are noxious, so latent development is best performed inside an enclosure. This approach also contains the fumes in an area where they will do the most good. Pictured below are two such developing chambers: one is portable for crime scene use, and it uses disposable plastic bags for the chamber. Heat may be applied to the glue using a small coffee warmer. The other apparatus is a glass enclosure with built in heaters.
Development is usually finished in 15 to 20 minutes in either of these approaches to development. Or if time isn’t critical, cotton pads work well with the results available in less than an hour.
Virtually any latent print powder can be used to apply a contrasting color to developed latent prints. Liquid dyes such as Ardrox, Basic Yellow or Rhodamine 6G are popular and each of these provide visible latents as well as fluorescent prints.
The advantage of using latent powders is that once the latents are photographed, they may be lifted using tapes or other special lifting devices.
Learn more about different latent processing methods by downloading the booklet: Overview of Latent Print Development Techniques.
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There’s an expression among the “fit-it” community that goes like this, “If it doesn’t move and it should—use WD-40. If it moves but shouldn’t—use duct tape.” The criminal element seems to have adopted the latter advice.
Duct tape has become the bonding method of choice—investigators find it used on hostages, rape and kidnap victims and other innocent bystanders.
While many brands of duct tape feature a smooth outer surface that often harbors latent prints, the adhesive-side of this same tape may provide a bounty of latent print opportunities. Using a simple mixture of finely milled iron oxide powder and a surfactant that is brushed onto the adhesive (sticky) side of the tape, the latent print expert can quickly develop some of the most outstanding, sharp, well-defined latents he has ever seem. And no one at the moment has determined exactly what the black, soapy goop is reacting to.
Some theorize that this developing solution is reacting to oily deposits while other experts think it may be an accumulation of dead skin cells. Regardless of why this works, the point is that it does work and latent prints from anyone who had occasion to touch the adhesive side left his/her calling card.
Here’s how to mix up and use a batch of Adhesive-Side Powder (ASP):
1. Choose the powder for best photographic contrast.
2. ASP must be premixed before use. Use a clean glass or plastic mixing bowl.
3. in a clean mixing bowl, add one teaspoon of the powder giving the best contrast against the background color of the tape. Note: Dark ASP works best on gray duct tape.
4. Add one teaspoon of eZFLO working solution to the bowl.
5. Mix the solution and the powder together using a clean brush such as the Regular Latent Print Brush (118L). Stir until the mixture has a frothy appearance.
6. Brush the mixture onto the sticky side of the tape. Allow 10 seconds for setup, and then rinse under cold, running water. Prints should be immediately visible.
Please note that ASP formulations are also available in pre-mixed solutions.
For more information on latent print development techniques and processes like ASP, download the free Overview of Latent Print Development Techniques. http://www.sirchie.com/Assets/Manuals/pdf/LP%20Dev'mt%20Tech_TB02-102ENG-REV2E.pdf
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References to Small Particle Reagent (SPR) began appearing in the literature dealing with latent print development during the late 1980s. The odd-sounding name is derived from the fact that the prime ingredient in SPR is a very finely-ground form of molybdenum disulfide. The popularity of this reagent draws from the fact that it is an ideal medium for developing latent fingerprints on wet, non-porous surfaces.
Molybdenum disulfide produces dark colored prints on light backgrounds. Since it was originally introduced, this process resulted in other formulations for use on dark surfaces (titanium dioxide) and a UV fluorescent formula works on virtually any background.
Most fingerprint powders and chemical methods are ineffective on wet surfaces. SPR, on the other hand, has proven its value time and again. SPR is available commercially in a pre-mixed liquid form. The reagent works best when sprayed on vertical surfaces, but it may also be used with tray development.
The molybdenum sulfide is mixed with a surfactant. One popular method of getting the powder into solution was the use of Kodak Photoflo®, but this product was discontinued.
SPR seems to perform equally well on dry and wet surfaces and residue is easily washed off most surfaces. The following procedure is recommended:
SPR works well on oily windows, oxidized metals, galvanized surfaces and salt-sprayed surfaces. Use No. SPR100 Dark SPR for light-colored surfaces, SPR200 White SPR for dark-colored surfaces and SPR400UV for multicolored surfaces. Latent prints developed using this method may be lifted using standard lifting mediums once the surface has dried.
1. Select the proper reagent based upon background contrast.
2. Shake the spray bottle well to get the particles into solution. On vertical surfaces, spray above the area suspected of containing latent prints and allow it to drain down over the area.
3. For tray-development, shake the reagent well and pour into a suitable developing tray. Place the evidence in the tray. Rock the tray back and forth to permit adequate contact between the
4. Immediately after prints appear, rinse the surface with water to remove excess reagent. Do not allow the water to flow directly onto the developed prints. On vertical surfaces, apply water directly above the prints and allow it to flow across them. For tray development, remove the evidence from the developing tray and place it in a clean tray. Add running water but do not allow it to fall directly onto the developed prints
5. Photograph any developed prints as soon as possible. Be certain to include a scale.
For more information on various latent print development methods, download the Latent Print Overview Manual.
http://www.sirchie.com/Assets/Manuals/pdf/LP%20Dev'mt%20Tech_TB02-102ENG-REV2E.pdf
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Sounds like a weird name for a latent print development reagent, but this chemical is finding its way into crime labs throughout the world. Amino acids dissolve in water, and, therefore, fingerprints on porous surfaces that have been exposed to moisture (water) usually do not respond well with traditional methods of latent development chemicals like ninhydrin or DFO. A longtime favorite, the Physical Developer (PD) method, is most often used.
In 2004, Alex Beaudoin, Services de l’Identité Judiciaire at the Sûreté du Québec, developed a method that made the recovery of fingerprints on wet porous surfaces simple and easy. Specifically, surfaces such as paper and cardboard that had been exposed to water or high humidity were ideal for Oil Red O (ORO). His three-step method displayed simplicity and differed from the multistep PD used in laboratories across Quebec
Beaudoin conducted tests to compare Oil Red O and physical developer on three types of paper surfaces: thermal paper, white standard paper, and brown kraft paper. Oil Red O was consistently superior to physical developer in terms of the mean fingerprint quality produced on thermal paper. Oil Red O was also shown to be superior for recovering fingerprints on standard white paper. On brown paper, the fingerprint quality was not significantly different between the two methods. This research supports the use of Oil Red O in laboratories for the treatment of wet porous surfaces. And Oil Red O is far less expensive and a lot less complicated to use.
Formula preparation:
1.54 g Oil Red O powder dissolved in 770 ml Methanol
9.2 g Sodium hydroxide dissolved in 230 ml distilled water
Add the Sodium hydroxide solution to the Oil Red O solution.
Mix & filter the combined solutions. Store in a dark bottle.
Safety Caution: Methanol (wood alcohol) is highly flammable and toxic. Wear safety goggles, latex gloves and an organic vapor respirator when mising and using this substance. Use only with adequate ventilation or exhaust hood.
Procedure:
1. Immerse the item in stain solution and soak completely. It is optional to agitate the solution on a
shaker platform.
- Ridge detail should begin to develop in 5 min.
- Weak fingerprints (poor lipidic content) may require 60 to 90 minutes of development time.
2. Remove & drain item - immerse in a pH7 buffer solution.
3. Remove item from buffer solution - rinse in distilled water.
4. Dry item at room temperature - or heat in an oven at 50 degrees C (122 degrees F).
Learn more about chemical development methods from the Technical Bulletin: “Overview of Latent Print Development Techniques”
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In the 1970s, the new kid on the block of latent print development chemicals was Physical Developer.
As effective as they may be, Iodine fuming, DFO and ninhydrin do not always produce desirable results. The blessing here is that these chemicals do not interfere with subsequent development with Physical Developer.
On porous materials, a reaction occurs between the lipids, fats, oils, and waxes found in sebaceous sweat and the silver-based liquid reagent known as Physical Developer (PD), to produce a silver-gray deposit visible to the naked eye. Since these sebaceous components are not soluble in water, the PD latent print development technique is particularly useful on wet paper or paper that has previously been wet. When the amino acids in fingerprints have been washed away or failed to react with Ninhydrin, or DFO; processing with PD may still produce identifiable latents. However, PD is time-consuming, expensive, destructive, and has a short shelf life. Therefore, one should only utilize PD as a final process in circumstances where it will be the most effective. (Forensic Magazine) http://www.forensicmag.com/article/comparison-physical-developer-formulas
The most common commercial formulas for PD include silver nitrate, ammonium iron (II) sulfatehexahydrate and other equally complex reagents.
Recommended Development Procedure
Some labs recommend a pre-wash of the document in a maleic acid solution:
1. Place the mixed chemicals in a clean glass or plastic developing tray. Do not use metal trays.
2. Immerse the evidence in the solution. Prints should appear in about 5 minutes. Allow development to continue for up to 15 minutes or until the background begins to darken.
3. Rinse the evidence under running water for up to 20 minutes. Air dry after rinsing with document lying flat.
4. Once dry, photograph any visible prints. Be certain to include a scale in each photo.
Learn more from the Technical Bulletin: “Overview of Latent Print Development Techniques”
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Silver Nitrate has been used for over 75 years as a latent print development technique. In 1937, M. Edwin O’Neill published, “The Development of Latent Fingerprints on Paper,” in which the author mentions the Silver Nitrate processing method.
Latent print powders were the most accepted means of latent development back then, but developing latents on paper was a difficult task. Porous surfaces such as paper and cardboard tend to absorb latent print residues rendering powders virtually useless, unless the prints were reasonably fresh.
Silver nitrate is a somewhat light sensitive chemical when dissolved in water or ethyl alcohol and
will darken over several days unless it is stored in amber bottles or locked away in a light-tight cabinet. But its light sensitivity can be turned to advantage when searching for latents on porous materials like paper.
Silver nitrate combines with the latent print moisture present on a document. The result is that when salt, sodium chloride, is present in the perspiration, which it usually is, the silver combines with the chloride atom of salt to form silver chloride—a highly light sensitive substance. When this occurs, latent prints appear on the paper with dark brown to black ridge detail.
Ordinary fluorescent lighting will trigger the development process, but bright sunlight or shortwave UV will greatly accelerate it.
Silver nitrate enjoyed widespread popularity until the 1950s when ninhydrin was introduced to the crime labs around the world. Ninhydrin had a number of advantages over silver nitrate, among which is the fact that once silver nitrate is applied to a surface, it continues to darken even under low light conditions; and cleaning off silver nitrate residues from laboratory apparatus was a major chore.
Another problem was that the evidence thus processed would continue to darken each time it was exposed to light, and eventually the developed latents would indeed be difficult to discern from the darkening background.
Few crime labs today use silver nitrate since DFO and ninhydrin are far more effective and do not pose long term cleanup problems. But don’t write off the use of silver compounds—the next PrinTips post will feature Physical Developer.
Learn more from the Technical Bulletin: “Overview of Latent Print Development Techniques”
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Like many of the techniques used in crime labs and crime scenes, ninhydrin (also known as 1,2,3-indantrione monohydrate) was not specifically used for developing latent prints. The first mention of ninhydrin in chemical literature was in 1910. Ninhydrin was a chemical used to detect ammonia or primary and secondary amines (amino acids). When reacting with these free amines, a deep blue or purple color known as Ruhemann's purple is produced. In 1955 a British patent was issued covering its use in developing latent fingerprints.
Several very effective formulations appeared since the patent was issued. Most were highly flammable and some quite hazardous from a health standpoint. Today one of the most popular formulas uses the 3M™ solvent—NOVEC™ Engineered Fluid, which is far down the hazardous scale.
This reagent is packaged commercially in both aerosol and pump spray containers. Many crime labs mix their own solutions and use tray development .Regardless of the application method, both sides of the document or object is saturated with the solution, and then it is allowed to air dry. Development may be accelerated by the careful application of live steam from a steam iron. Development without acceleration of any kind can take 24 hours or longer at room temperature.
Ninhydrin produces a purple color on most porous surfaces. Several factors, including the amount of amino acids that were contained in the latent print, influence the clarity of the resulting developed latent print. Quite often the visible ridges may be fragmented, while some print donors produce a brilliantly colored print with excellent ridge detail.
Ninhydrin prints may be enhanced by the addition of a zinc chloride treatment. This will produce fluorescence under UV or blue alternate light sources.
In many cases, lab technicians will process porous surfaces with iodine (PrinTips-02) fuming followed by DFO (PrinTios-03). If these processes fail to produce usable latents, then ninhydrin development should be used as a follow up.
Regardless of the chemical process used, good practice is to secure the Material Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for the product. Here you will find a list of potential health hazards, first aid treatment and the precautions needed to safely use the product.
Learn more from the Technical Bulletin: “Overview of Latent Print Development Techniques”
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DFO: An alternative to Ninhydrin
Several very effective methods are available for latent print development on porous materials. Iodine fuming was discussed in PrinTips-02. This article will cover DFO (1,8-Diazafluorene-9-one), which is a Ninhydrin analog, and it too reacts to amino acid residues in latent prints.
Ninhydrin has been a mainstay for latent print development for several decades. Its original development was to serve as a dye stain for examining body cells under a microscope. It reacts to the presence of amino acids by producing a purple stain.
But Ninhydrin has its shortcomings, namely, that developed prints may be difficult to see—let alone photograph. The addition of zinc chloride solution adds fluorescence to weak prints.
In 1989, researchers with the Department of Chemistry, Belfast, Northern Ireland (per the FBI) introduced DFO, which is now commercially available and used in the United Kingdom. Unlike ninhydrin, DFO gives a weakly colored initial print; the main feature of this reagent is its ability to give a fluorescent print without secondary treatment.
DFO is said to produce 2.5 times the number of latent prints than Ninhydrin. The most often used formula for DFO is as follows:
DFO STOCK SOLUTION
1 gm DFO crystals
200 ml Methanol
200 ml Ethyl Acetate
40 ml Glacial Acetic acid
Combine and stir with a magnetic stirrer until ALL the ingredients are dissolved.
DFO WORKING SOLUTION
Add Petroleum ether to the stock solution until the total volume is two liters.
Keep in mind that the DFO prepared working solution has a relatively short shelf life, so this two-part formula will assure that the maximum benefit will be achieved.
Procedure:
1. Saturate both sides of the document or evidence to be examined. Allow the
evidence to air dry.
2. Place evidence in a heat chamber (DFC100) preheated to 200º F.
3. Remove the evidence after having been exposed to heat for 5-10 minutes.
4. Examine the item for any visible prints. generally, DFO prints will not be immediately visible. if any prints are visible, they will be pale pink in color.
5. Examine the evidence in a darkened room using long-wave ultraviolet light or
an alternate light source.
6. Photograph any visible latents while exposed to UV or alternate light source. Be certain to include a scale in each photo. Note: DFO treatment will not interfere with subsequent chemical tests.
Learn more from the Technical Bulletin: “Overview of Latent Print Development Techniques”
http://www.sirchie.com/Assets/Manuals/pdf/LP%20Dev'mt%20Tech_TB02-102ENG-REV2E.pdf
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It is widely believed that Iodine fuming was the first, or at least among the first chemical methods for developing latent fingerprints. Iodine is a non-metal, crystalline element that was first isolated in 1811 by the French chemist Barnard Courtois.
The name originates from the Greek word for violet, iodes, and while this element is lustrous metallic gray in color, it gives off a violet/purple gas when heat is applied. In its pure state, iodine is highly toxic by ingestion or inhalation of the fumes. Compounds containing iodine are used in water purification tablets and the radioactive isotope of iodine is used in thyroid gland treatment. Iodized salt is a regular on most dinner tables.
Iodine occupies a prominent place on the shelves of many crime laboratories. Those purple fumes are known to react with body oils to produce an orange/brown stain. This is especially valuable in the development of latent prints on porous materials such as untreated wood, paper, cardboard and certain types of cloth.
Iodine fuming works best on prints known to be reasonably fresh, since the body oils tend to disperse rather quickly in porous materials so the ridge detail becomes useless. Thus—ransom or demand notes (this is a stick-up) are likely targets for iodine fuming. If this technique works, the developed prints must be quickly photographed as they are “fugitive,” in that they begin to fade shortly after they appear.
Iodine fuming is then, the ideal first step in latent development on porous materials. It does not interfere with subsequent processing with DFO, Ninhydrin or Physical Developer.
No complicated or expensive apparatus is needed to start the fuming process. A fuming chamber may be as simple as a Zip-Top plastic bag. Simply insert the document to be examined into the bag with a few iodine crystals, zip it shut and apply heat by cupping one hand over the crystals for 10-15 seconds. Body heat kicks off the “sublimation” process, which converts the solid material into a purple gas. For safety sake, wear latex gloves, safety goggles and an organic vapor respirator.
Learn more from the Technical Bulletin: Overview of Latent Print Development Techniques
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Since then it has enjoyed widespread use among crime scene units around the world. Magnetic powder has several major benefits for the user:
Learn more about your choices of development methods in this easy-to-download publication:
Latent Print Overview of Development Techniques
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This blog is devoted to crime scene investigation training and updates in crime scene forensics. All posts are painstakingly researched to ensure that the most up-to-date, factual information is published.
Our goal is to provide information in the science of criminalistics and to encourage our readers to participate in this information sharing process. The articles posted on this blog will be of interest to those seeking more information on:
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Introducing PrinTips
In keeping with our efforts to provide useful, timely information to the crime scene investigation community, we have added this new category to the CSI TECH BLOG. We will be offering posts relating to Latent Fingerprint Development Techniques that include specific information that makes this task more of a pleasure rather than a chore.
PrinTips will include up-to-date information on the well-established latent print development methods—like powder and brush—to chemical processing using the old favorites like iodine fuming and ninhydrin. Among the mix will be cyanoacrylate (superglue) fuming and more.
Posts will be short snippets providing just what you need to get the job done—quickly yet efficiently. Click on "PrinTips" under Categories.
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Don Penven, Technical Support Group
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